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How would you define a case study
Causality also referred to as causationdefine cause and effect essay, or cause and effect is influence by which one eventprocess, state or object a cause contributes to the production of another event, process, state or object an effect where the cause is partly responsible for the effect, and the effect is partly dependent define cause and effect essay the cause. In general, a process has many causes, [1] which are also said to be causal factors for it, define cause and effect essay, and all lie in its past.
An effect can in turn be a cause of, or causal factor for, many other effects, define cause and effect essay, which all lie in its future. Some writers have held that causality is metaphysically prior to notions of time and space. Causality is an abstraction that indicates how the define cause and effect essay progresses, [5] so basic a concept that it is define cause and effect essay apt as an explanation of other concepts of progression than as something to be explained by others more basic.
The concept is like those of agency and efficacy. For this reason, a leap of intuition may be needed to grasp it. In English studies of Aristotelian philosophythe word "cause" is used as a specialized technical term, the translation of Aristotle 's term αἰτία, by which Aristotle meant "explanation" or "answer to a 'why' question".
Aristotle categorized the four types of answers as material, formal, efficient, and final "causes". In this case, the "cause" is the explanans for the explanandumand failure to recognize that different kinds of "cause" are being considered can lead to futile debate.
Of Aristotle's four explanatory modes, define cause and effect essay, the one nearest to the concerns of the present article is the "efficient" one.
David Humeas part of his opposition to rationalismargued that pure reason alone cannot prove the reality of efficient causality; instead, he appealed to custom and mental habit, observing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience. The topic of causality remains a staple in contemporary philosophy. The nature define cause and effect essay cause and effect is a concern of the subject known as metaphysics.
Kant thought that time and space were notions prior to human understanding of the progress or evolution of the world, and he also recognized the priority of causality. But he did not have the understanding that came with knowledge of Minkowski geometry and the special theory of relativitythat the notion of causality can be used as a prior foundation from which to construct notions of time and space.
A general metaphysical question about cause and effect is what kind of entity can be a cause, and what kind of entity can be an effect. One viewpoint on this question is that cause and effect are of one and the same kind of entity, with causality an asymmetric relation between them.
That is to say, it would make good sense grammatically to say either " A is the cause and B the effect" or define cause and effect essay B is the cause and A the effect", define cause and effect essay, though only one of those two can be actually true. In this view, one opinion, proposed as a metaphysical principle in process philosophydefine cause and effect essay, is that every cause and every effect is respectively some process, event, becoming, or happening.
Another view is that causes and effects are 'states of affairs', with the exact natures of those entities being less restrictively defined than in process define cause and effect essay. Another viewpoint on the question is the more classical one, that a cause and its effect can be of different kinds of entity.
For example, in Aristotle's efficient causal explanation, an action can be a cause while an enduring object is its effect. For example, the generative actions of his parents can be regarded as the efficient cause, with Socrates being the effect, Socrates being regarded as an enduring object, in philosophical tradition called a 'substance', as distinct from an action.
Since causality is a subtle metaphysical notion, considerable intellectual effort, along with exhibition of evidence, is needed to establish knowledge of it in particular empirical circumstances. According to David Humethe human mind is unable to perceive causal relations directly.
On this ground, the scholar distinguished between the regularity view on causality and the counterfactual notion. Hume interpreted the latter as an ontological view, i. Having an epistemic concept of causality is needed to distinguish between causal and noncausal relations. The contemporary philosophical literature on causality can be divided into five big approaches to causality. These include the mentioned above regularity, probabilisticcounterfactual, mechanisticand manipulationist views.
The five approaches can be shown to be reductive, i. Causality has the properties of antecedence and contiguity. As developed define cause and effect essay Alfred Robbthese properties allow the derivation of the notions of time and space. opens the way to a straightforward construction of the causal topology of Minkowski space. Thus, the notion of causality is metaphysically prior to the notions of time and space.
In practical terms, this is because use of the relation of causality is necessary for the interpretation of empirical experiments. Interpretation of experiments is needed to establish the physical and geometrical notions of time and space. The deterministic world-view holds that the history of the universe can be exhaustively represented as a progression of events following one after as cause and effect.
Compatibilismon the other hand, holds that determinism is compatible with, or even necessary for, free will. Causes may sometimes be distinguished into two types: necessary and sufficient. Mackie argues that usual talk of "cause" in fact refers to INUS conditions i nsufficient but n on-redundant parts of a condition which is itself u nnecessary but s ufficient for the occurrence of the effect.
Consider the collection of events: the short circuit, the proximity of flammable material, and the absence of firefighters.
Together these are unnecessary but sufficient to the house's burning down since many other collections of events certainly could have led to the house burning down, for example shooting the house with a flamethrower in the presence of oxygen and so forth.
Within this collection, the short circuit is an insufficient since the short circuit by itself would not have caused the fire but non-redundant because the fire would not have happened without it, everything else being equal part of a condition which is itself unnecessary but sufficient for the occurrence of the effect. So, the short circuit is an INUS condition for the occurrence of the house burning down.
Conditional statements are not statements of causality. An important distinction is that statements of causality require the antecedent to precede or coincide with the consequent in time, whereas conditional statements do not require this temporal order.
Confusion commonly arises since many different statements in English may be presented using "If The two types of statements are distinct, however. For example, all of the following statements are true when interpreting "If The first is true since both the antecedent and the consequent are true. The second is true in sentential logic and indeterminate in natural language, regardless of the consequent statement that follows, because the antecedent is false.
The ordinary indicative conditional has somewhat more structure than the material conditional. For instance, although the first is the closest, neither of the preceding two statements seems true as an ordinary indicative reading. But the sentence:. intuitively seems to be true, even though there is no straightforward causal relation in this hypothetical situation between Shakespeare's not writing Macbeth and someone else's actually writing it. Another sort of conditional, the counterfactual conditionalhas a stronger connection with causality, yet even counterfactual statements are not all examples of causality.
Consider the following two statements:. In the first case, it would not be correct to say that A's being a define cause and effect essay caused it to have three sides, define cause and effect essay, since the relationship between triangularity and three-sidedness is that of definition. Define cause and effect essay property of having three sides actually determines A's state as a triangle. Nonetheless, define cause and effect essay, even when interpreted counterfactually, the first statement is true.
An early version of Aristotle's "four cause" theory is described as recognizing "essential cause". In this version of the theory, that the closed polygon has three sides is said to be the "essential cause" of its being a triangle. Nevertheless, it is within the scope of ordinary language to say that it is essential to a triangle that it has three sides.
Define cause and effect essay full grasp of the concept of conditionals is important to understanding the literature on causality. In everyday language, loose conditional statements are often enough made, and need to be interpreted carefully. Fallacies of questionable cause, also known as causal fallacies, non-causa pro causa Latin for "non-cause for cause"or false cause, are informal fallacies where a cause is incorrectly identified.
Counterfactual theories define causation in terms of a counterfactual relation. These theories can often be seeing as "floating" their account of causality on top of an account of the logic of counterfactual conditionals.
This approach can be traced back to Define cause and effect essay Hume 's definition of the causal relation as that "where, if the first object had not been, the second never had existed. In his paper "Causation," David Lewis proposed the following definition of the notion of causal dependence : [24]. Causation is then defined as a chain of causal dependence. That is, C causes E if and only if there exists a sequence of events C, D 1D 2D kE such that each event in the sequence depends on the previous.
This chain may be called a mechanism. Note that the analysis does not purport to explain how we make causal judgements or how we reason about causation, but rather to give a metaphysical account of what it is for there to be a causal relation between some pair of events.
If correct, the analysis has the power to explain certain features of causation. Knowing that causation is a matter of counterfactual dependence, we may reflect on the nature of counterfactual dependence to account for the nature of causation. For example, in his paper "Counterfactual Dependence and Time's Arrow," Lewis sought to account for the time-directedness of counterfactual dependence in terms of the semantics of the counterfactual conditional. Interpreting causation as a deterministic relation means that if A causes Bthen A must always be followed by B.
In this sense, war does not cause deaths, nor does smoking cause cancer or emphysema. As a result, many turn to a notion of probabilistic causation. Informally, A "The person is a smoker" probabilistically causes B "The person has now or will have cancer at some time in the future"if the information that A occurred increases the likelihood of B s occurrence.
This intuitive condition is not adequate as a definition for probabilistic causation because of its being too general and thus not meeting our intuitive notion of cause and effect. The last relationship states that knowing that the person has emphysema increases the likelihood that he will have cancer.
The reason for this is that having the information that the person has emphysema increases the likelihood that the person is a smoker, thus indirectly increasing the likelihood that the person will have cancer.
However, we would not want to conclude that having emphysema causes cancer. Thus, we need additional conditions such as temporal relationship of A to B and a define cause and effect essay explanation as to the mechanism of action. It is hard to quantify this last requirement and thus different authors prefer somewhat different definitions. When experimental interventions are infeasible or illegal, the derivation of cause effect relationship from observational studies must rest on some qualitative theoretical assumptions, for example, that symptoms do not cause diseases, usually expressed in the form of missing arrows in causal graphs such as Bayesian networks or path diagrams.
The former reads: "the probability of finding cancer in a person known to smoke, having started, unforced by the experimenter, to do so at an unspecified time in the past", while the latter reads: "the probability of finding cancer in a person forced by the experimenter to smoke at a specified time in the past".
The former is a statistical notion that can be estimated by observation with negligible intervention by the experimenter, while the latter is a define cause and effect essay notion which is estimated in an experiment with an important controlled randomized intervention.
It is specifically characteristic of quantal phenomena that observations defined by incompatible variables always involve important intervention by the experimenter, define cause and effect essay, as described quantitatively by the observer effect. In other branches of science, for example astronomythe experimenter can often define cause and effect essay with negligible intervention.
The theory of "causal calculus" [26] also known as do-calculus, Judea Pearl 's Causal Calculus, Calculus of Actions permits one to infer interventional probabilities from conditional probabilities in causal Bayesian networks with unmeasured variables. One very practical result of this theory is the characterization of confounding variablesnamely, a sufficient set of variables that, define cause and effect essay, if adjusted for, would yield the correct causal define cause and effect essay between variables of interest.
This criterion, called "backdoor", provides a mathematical definition of "confounding" and helps researchers identify accessible sets of variables worthy of measurement.
How To Write A Cause And Effect Essay (Definition + Topics + Outline)
, time: 6:06How to Write a Cause and Effect Essay: The Full Guide | EssayPro
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